The correct option is (c).
Explanation
In the Indian context, literacy is defined by the Census as the ability of a person aged 7 years and above to read and write with understanding in any language. Literacy is a key socio-economic indicator reflecting the quality of human capital.
1. Statement 1 is Incorrect:
Historically and currently, literacy rates among males are higher than among females in India. According to the 2011 Census, the male literacy rate was 82.14%, while the female literacy rate was significantly lower at 65.46%. This gender gap is attributed to various social and economic factors.
2. Statement 2 is Correct:
Literacy rates in urban areas are consistently higher than in rural areas. The 2011 Census recorded urban literacy at 84.1% compared to 67.8% in rural areas. This disparity is driven by better access to educational infrastructure, higher income levels, and greater awareness in urban centers.
3. Statement 3 is Correct:
Education is recognized as a fundamental right under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution (Right to Education Act). Additionally, literacy is considered a necessity for citizens to effectively perform their Fundamental Duties (Article 51A), such as developing a scientific temper, abiding by the Constitution, and participating in the democratic process as informed citizens.
Key Takeaway:
India's literacy landscape is characterized by distinct gaps based on gender (Male > Female) and geography (Urban > Rural), even though education is a constitutionally guaranteed right essential for civic participation.