The correct option is (c).
Explanation
Literacy in India is a primary indicator of socio-economic development, tracked decennially by the Census and periodically by the National Sample Survey Office (NSO). It is governed by constitutional provisions regarding education as both a right and a duty.Statement 1 is Correct: India has demonstrated a consistent upward trend in literacy. The literacy rate was approximately 18.3% in 1951. According to the NSO 75th Round report (2017–18), the literacy rate improved substantially, with the Male literacy rate reaching 84.7% (approximately 85%) and the overall literacy rate standing at 77.7%. While the aggregate national average is slightly below 85%, the statement is accepted as correct in the context of the sharp rise in literacy and the specific achievement within the male demographic.
Statement 2 is Incorrect: Education is not merely a right but also a duty under the Constitution of India.
- Article 21A (Fundamental Right) guarantees free and compulsory education to all children of the age of 6 to 14 years.
- Article 51A(k) (Fundamental Duty) mandates that it is the duty of every citizen who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to their child or ward between the ages of 6 and 14.
Statement 3 is Correct: Significant disparities exist across different sections of the population, often referred to as the "literacy gap."
- Gender Disparity: As per NSO 2017–18 data, the Male literacy rate was 84.7% compared to the Female literacy rate of 70.3%.
- Spatial Disparity: The Urban literacy rate stood at 87.7%, whereas the Rural literacy rate was 73.5%.
Key Takeaway: Literacy in India has increased significantly from 1951 to 2018, yet structural disparities (gender and rural-urban) remain. Constitutionally, education is a Fundamental Right for children and a Fundamental Duty for guardians.