The correct option is 1 and 3 only
Explanation
During the mid-first millennium BCE, the Ganges Valley witnessed the rise of the Shramana tradition, a movement of wandering ascetics who challenged the authority of the Vedas and the efficacy of Brahmanical rituals. This period produced several heterodox teachers, including the founders of Jainism, Buddhism, and the Ajivika sect, as well as materialist philosophers.
Statement-wise Analysis:
- Statement 1 is Correct: Makkhali Gosala was a prominent teacher of the 6th century BCE and is historically associated with the founding and leadership of the Ajivika sect. He was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha and Mahavira. In fact, early Jain texts suggest that he was a companion of Mahavira for several years before they parted ways due to doctrinal differences.
- Statement 2 is Incorrect: Ajita Kesakambalin was one of the earliest proponents of Indian materialism (associated with the Lokayata or Charvaka school). He propounded the doctrine of Ucchedavada (Annihilationism), arguing that a human being is composed of the four elements and that at death, these elements return to nature, leaving nothing behind. He explicitly rejected the efficacy of alms, offerings, and Vedic sacrifices, asserting that there is no fruit or result of good or evil deeds.
- Statement 3 is Correct: The central tenet of the Ajivika philosophy was the doctrine of Niyati (Fate or Destiny). They believed that all events are predetermined and that human effort (purushartha) is futile in changing the course of transmigration or suffering. According to this view, beings are purified through the cycle of existence (samsara) only after a fixed period, regardless of their actions.
Key Takeaway:
The Ajivikas, led by Makkhali Gosala, believed in absolute fatalism (Niyati), whereas Ajita Kesakambalin was a materialist who denied the existence of the soul, karma, and the efficacy of Vedic rituals.