The correct option is (c) 2 and 3 only.
Explanation
The peasant and zamindari rebellions in northern and western India during the later Mughal period (late 17th and 18th centuries) were a manifestation of the deepening agrarian and political crisis. These uprisings, involving groups like the Jats, Sikhs, and Satnamis, significantly eroded the imperial authority and contributed to the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
Statement-wise Analysis
- Statement 1 is Incorrect. While the mounting pressure of land revenue demands (taxes) was a primary cause of peasant discontent, it was not the exclusive cause. These rebellions were often fueled by ethnic, clan, and religious identities (e.g., the Satnamis and Sikhs). Furthermore, the conflict was not just between the state and peasants but often involved local zamindars asserting their autonomy against central centralization.
- Statement 2 is Correct. The rebellions were rarely simple peasant uprisings; they were often led or supported by local zamindars and chieftains. These powerful local leaders utilized peasant discontent to withhold revenue from the central government and consolidate their own political and military positions in the region.
- Statement 3 is Correct. A distinguishing feature of these later rebellions, unlike sporadic revolts in the past, was the rebels' ability to permanently seize the economic resources of the region. By withholding revenue that previously went to the Mughal treasury, these groups (such as the Jats and Marathas) successfully built independent economic bases, allowing them to establish autonomous regional kingdoms.
Key Takeaway
The rebellions of the later Mughal period were complex socio-political movements driven by a combination of
economic exploitation (high taxes) and
local assertions of power by zamindars, leading to the formation of regional states.