The correct option is 1 and 3 only
Explanation
Workforce participation in India is analyzed using indicators such as the Worker-Population Ratio (WPR) and Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR). These metrics highlight significant disparities based on gender and the rural-urban divide, often influenced by the nature of the economy (agrarian vs. industrial) and social definitions of "work."
Statement 1 is Correct:
This statement is interpreted in the context of the distribution of the female workforce. The overwhelming majority of working women in India reside and work in rural areas, primarily engaged in agriculture and allied activities. While men still outnumber women in the total rural workforce in absolute terms, the female workforce is heavily concentrated in rural India compared to urban India, where female participation is significantly lower.
Statement 2 is Incorrect:
Data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) consistently shows that the Worker-Population Ratio (WPR) for women is higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Rural women frequently engage in farm labour, livestock rearing, and allied activities (often as unpaid family labour), whereas urban women face lower participation rates due to various socio-economic factors, higher educational engagement, or lack of suitable employment opportunities.
Statement 3 is Correct:
A significant portion of women’s time is spent on unpaid domestic services and care work (cooking, cleaning, child care). Under the current System of National Accounts (SNA) and standard employment definitions, these activities are not counted as "economic" or "productive" work. This exclusion leads to a substantial underestimation of women’s contribution to the economy and the workforce.
Key Takeaway:
Female workforce participation in India is characterized by a rural skew (higher WPR in rural areas due to agriculture) and the invisibility of a large volume of unpaid care work, which is not captured in official employment statistics.