The correct option is
2 and 3 only
Explanation
Mughal rural society was deeply stratified, with social status and economic standing closely linked to the caste system. While the abundance of land allowed for some mobility, deep-seated inequities persisted, particularly at the lowest rungs of the social ladder.
Statement-wise Analysis
- Statement 1 is Incorrect. There was a direct correlation between caste and poverty, especially at the lower strata. Despite the availability of cultivable land, certain caste groups (often termed "menials" or agricultural laborers like the halalkhoran and mallahzadas) were socially and institutionally constrained from owning land. They were relegated to the poorest sections of society and forced to provide cheap labor for the village community.
- Statement 2 is Correct. Caste hierarchies were indeed fluid at the intermediate levels. In many regions, pastoral and fishing castes (such as the Sadgops and Kaivartas in Bengal) acquired land, transitioned into settled agriculture, and successfully integrated into the peasantry, thereby improving their social status.
- Statement 3 is Correct. In northern India, pastoral and cattle-rearing castes such as the Ahirs, Gujars, and Jats succeeded in rising in the social hierarchy. As agriculture expanded and became more profitable, these groups settled down as land-holding cultivators, moving up from their previous status to become dominant peasant communities.
Key Takeaway: In Mughal India, caste rigidity ensured a strong link between low caste status and poverty (landlessness) at the bottom of the hierarchy. However, at the intermediate levels, economic success through agriculture allowed for social mobility among groups like Jats, Ahirs, and Gujars.