Historian Barani refused to consider the state in India under Delhi Sultans as truly Islamic because:

Correct Option (C)

Historian Ziauddin Barani, an orthodox chronicler of the Delhi Sultanate, refused to consider the state as truly Islamic primarily because the Sultans often framed their own administrative and economic regulations, known asMazalim, which supplemented or even superseded the traditional Islamic law,Sharia. Barani believed that a genuinely Islamic state should be governed exclusively by Sharia. Rulers like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, for instance, implemented policies based onpolitical expediency and state requirementsrather than strict adherence to religious jurisprudence, such as Alauddin Khalji's market control measures and revenue reforms. Thisdeparture from Sharia in governancewas the core of Barani's refusal to consider the Sultanate as truly Islamic.

Incorrect Options

Option 1: majority of the population, did not follow Islam
While it is historically accurate that a significant portion of the population under the Delhi Sultanate was non-Muslim, this demographic fact was not the central reason for Barani's specific criticism regarding the state's Islamic character. His critique focused on the principles of governance rather than the religious composition of the populace.

Option 2: Muslim theologists were often disregarded
It is true that Delhi Sultans did not always strictly adhere to the advice of the Ulema (Muslim theologians). However, Barani's fundamental objection was not merely the disregard for theologians but the Sultan's direct legislative authority that created laws independent of Sharia, which he considered a more profound deviation from an ideal Islamic state.

Option 4: religious freedom was accorded to non-Muslims
Non-Muslims were generally accorded a degree of religious freedom under the Delhi Sultanate, often subject to the payment of Jizya. While this policy might have been viewed differently by various orthodox thinkers, it was not the principal reason Barani argued that the state was not truly Islamic. His concern was with the state's legal framework and its divergence from Sharia.