Correct Option
The correct option is (a) 1 and 2 only.
Explanation
Around 600 BCE (approximately 2500 years ago), the Ganga valley witnessed significant advancements in agricultural technology. These developments created the necessary agricultural surplus that supported the Second Urbanisation and the rise of the Mahajanapadas, particularly the Magadhan Empire.
Statement-wise Analysis
- Statement 1 is Correct: The introduction of the iron ploughshare was a pivotal technological change during this period. Unlike wooden ploughs, iron ploughshares could effectively turn over the heavy, clayey alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains. This allowed for deeper ploughing and better soil aeration, leading to significantly higher crop yields.
- Statement 2 is Correct: The technique of paddy transplantation was introduced during this era. Instead of scattering seeds on dry land, farmers began growing saplings in nurseries and then planting them in prepared, water-filled fields. This method drastically increased the survival rate of saplings and improved overall production compared to the broadcasting method.
- Statement 3 is Incorrect: The new agricultural methods, particularly paddy transplantation, were labor-intensive and physically demanding (often described as "back-breaking"). This work was generally performed by dasas (slaves) and karmakaras (landless agricultural labourers), not by Kshatriya landowners. The Kshatriyas were primarily the ruling and warrior class, while the land was often owned by gahapatis (landowners) who employed labor.
Key Takeaway: The agricultural revolution in the later Vedic/Mahajanapada period was driven by the use of iron ploughshares and paddy transplantation, which utilized the labor of dasas and karmakaras to generate the surplus required for state formation.