The correct option is (a).
Explanation
In the post-Vedic period, the political landscape of North India was divided into monarchies (ruled by a single king) and Gana-Sanghas (oligarchic republics). The Gana-Sanghas were characterized by collective leadership where power was shared among a group of ruling elites, often referred to as rajas, rather than a single hereditary monarch.
Statement-wise Analysis
- Statement 1 is Correct: Both Gautama Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira belonged to Gana-Sanghas (republican clans) rather than monarchical kingdoms.
- The Buddha belonged to the Sakya clan, which was a Gana-Sangha with its capital at Kapilavastu.
- Mahavira belonged to the Jnatrika clan, which was part of the powerful Vajji confederacy (a Sangha) with its capital at Vaishali.
- Statement 2 is Incorrect: While the Gana-Sanghas had assemblies for discussion and voting on important issues, participation was restricted.
- The assemblies were dominated by the heads of the Kshatriya families (the rajas).
- Women, slaves (dasas), and agricultural laborers (kammakaras) were explicitly excluded from these assemblies and had no say in the decision-making process.
Key Takeaway: Gana-Sanghas were oligarchies, not democracies; while they featured collective rule and voting among the ruling clans, they strictly excluded women and the working class from political participation.