The correct option is (c) 1 and 3 only.
Explanation
The Virashaiva tradition emerged in the 12th century in Karnataka, led by Basavanna (1106–68). It represented a radical strand of the Bhakti movement that sought to reform the social and religious practices of the time, emphasizing devotion to Shiva and rejecting rigid orthodoxy.
Statement 1 is Correct:
The Virashaivas strongly challenged the Brahmanical hierarchy of caste. They argued against the notion that social status and spiritual worth were determined by birth. By rejecting caste-based pollution norms, they sought to establish a community of equals among the devotees of Shiva.
Statement 2 is Incorrect:
The movement rejected the idea that salvation was the exclusive privilege of the upper castes. Instead, they preached that salvation (union with the divine) was accessible to every individual, regardless of their caste background. They also questioned the theory of rebirth, which was often used to justify caste stratification.
Statement 3 is Correct:
The Virashaivas were critical of the subordinate status of women in society. They advocated for the social and spiritual equality of women, opposing practices such as child marriage and supporting widow remarriage. The movement included prominent female saints, such as Akka Mahadevi, who composed vachanas (poetry) and participated actively in spiritual discourse.
Key Takeaway:
The Virashaiva movement was characterized by its fierce opposition to caste hierarchy and gender discrimination, advocating for a socially inclusive form of Bhakti where salvation was open to all.