The correct option is (c) 1 and 3 only.
Explanation
During the medieval period, specifically around the 11th and 12th centuries, Indian society witnessed significant social mobility. This process, often described as "Rajputization," involved tribal chiefs and communities integrating into the Brahmanical caste hierarchy by claiming Rajput status to legitimize their political power.
Statement 1 is Correct:
By the eleventh and twelfth centuries, new Rajput clans emerged as powerful political entities. Historical records indicate that some of these clans had tribal origins (such as the Hunas, Chandelas, and Chalukyas). As agricultural settlements expanded, these tribal chiefs replaced older rulers and utilized their accumulated wealth to establish powerful states.
Statement 2 is Incorrect:
In the north-western regions, specifically Punjab, Sind, and the North-West Frontier, dominant tribes adopted Islam at an early stage. Consequently, they continued to reject the caste system. The unequal social order prescribed by orthodox Hinduism was not widely accepted in these areas, distinguishing them from the tribal integration patterns seen in other parts of India.
Statement 3 is Correct:
The successful rise of Rajput clans to the status of rulers set a precedent for other tribal people. With the support of Brahmanas, many tribal families-particularly the ruling elites-were assimilated into the caste system as Kshatriyas (Rajputs). However, the majority of the ordinary tribal population was absorbed into the lower jatis of caste society.
Key Takeaway:
While the "Rajputization" model facilitated the integration of tribes into the caste system in central and eastern India, tribes in Punjab and Sind largely adopted Islam and rejected the hierarchical caste structure.