The correct option is (c) Both 1 and 2.
Explanation
The Early Historic period in India (c. 600 BCE onwards), coinciding with the rise of Mahajanapadas and the Second Urbanisation, was characterized by a significant expansion in agricultural production. This agrarian growth was driven by technological advancements in iron metallurgy and the systematic development of irrigation infrastructure.
Statement-wise Analysis:
- Statement 1 is Correct: To sustain the growing population and the emerging urban centers, reliance on rainfall alone was insufficient. Historical texts and archaeological evidence suggest that irrigation works, including canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes, were constructed. The state and village communities often collaborated to build and maintain these structures to ensure consistent agricultural output.
- Statement 2 is Correct: The expansion of agriculture into the fertile but densely forested mid-Gangetic plains was made possible by the use of iron tools. Iron axes were extensively used to clear forests for cultivation, while iron ploughshares allowed for deep ploughing in the heavy alluvial soil, significantly increasing crop yields compared to earlier wooden tools.
Key Takeaway:
The combination of iron technology (axes and ploughshares) and artificial irrigation created the agricultural surplus necessary for the rise of large states (Mahajanapadas) and the sustenance of urban centers in early historic India.