Correct Option
The correct option is 1 and 3 only.
Explanation
During the early historic period (c. 600 BCE onwards), the expansion of agriculture and the use of iron technology led to significant changes in rural society. This period, often associated with the rise of the Mahajanapadas and the Magadhan Empire, witnessed the emergence of a stratified agrarian structure and established village administration systems.
Statement-wise Analysis
- Statement 1 is Correct: Pali texts and other sources from this period indicate a growing differentiation within rural society. The population was not homogenous; it included wealthy landowners (Gahapatis or Gramabhojakas), small independent farmers, and landless agricultural labourers (Dasa-Kammakaras) who worked on others' fields.
- Statement 2 is Incorrect: The village headman (known as Gramabhojaka in the north or Gramini) held significant power and authority. He functioned as the link between the king and the village, collected taxes on behalf of the king, and maintained law and order. He often exercised judicial powers and had authority over other cultivators.
- Statement 3 is Correct: The position of the village headman was frequently hereditary. In many cases, the same family held the post for generations, consolidating their influence and economic power within the village structure.
Key Takeaway: The early historic rural society was stratified, characterized by the presence of landless labourers (Dasa-Kammakaras) and powerful, often hereditary village headmen (Gramabhojakas) who exercised administrative and judicial authority.